Caesarean section

You can decide either to go to sleep (general anaesthetic) or to stay awake (spinal or epidural anaesthetic) for the operation. Spinal anaesthetic A spinal anaesthetic involves injecting local...

What is an epidural anaesthetic? An epidural anaesthetic (or epidural) involves injecting local anaesthetics and other painkillers into an area called the epidural space, near your spinal cord. This...

What is an epidural injection? An epidural injection involves injecting local anaesthetics and steroids into an area called the epidural space, near your spinal cord. This numbs your nerves to provide...

What is a general anaesthetic? A general anaesthetic is a combination of drugs that causes deep sleep. It is used for operations or procedures as it causes a loss of sensation. You will not be aware...

What is a local anaesthetic? A local anaesthetic is a drug that is injected into the tissues to make them numb. Local anaesthetics temporarily stop nerves working so that you do not feel pain. The...

What are the benefits of pain relief? Operations cause pain. If you have good pain control after your operation, you are less likely to have a heart attack, a chest infection or blood clots. You...

You may decide to go through labour without any pain relief, but most women choose to have some pain relief. TENS This method uses a small electric current to change the way you feel pain. The current...

What is a peripheral nerve block? A peripheral nerve block is a type of regional anaesthetic that involves injecting local anaesthetics and other painkillers near the major nerves to your leg. A nerve...

What is a peripheral nerve block? A peripheral nerve block is a type of regional anaesthetic that involves injecting local anaesthetics and other painkiller near the major nerves to your arm. A nerve...

What is a spinal anaesthetic? A spinal anaesthetic (or spinal) involves injecting local anaesthetics and other painkillers into an area called the subarachnoid space, near your spinal cord. This numbs...

What is a breast augmentation? A breast augmentation is an operation to use silicone or saline (salt water) implants to make your breasts larger, and usually to improve their shape. What are the...

What is a breast reconstruction with an implant or tissue expander? A breast reconstruction is an operation to recreate a breast shape after you have had a mastectomy (removing all your breast). Your...

What is a breast reconstruction with latissimus dorsi flap? A breast reconstruction is an operation to recreate a breast shape after you have had a mastectomy, using the latissimus dorsi muscle from...

What is a breast reduction? A breast reduction is an operation to make your breasts smaller and, sometimes, to improve their shape. What are the benefits of surgery? Your breasts should be smaller and...

What is a breast uplift? A breast uplift (mastopexy) is a cosmetic operation to remove excess skin from your breasts to improve their shape. What are the benefits of surgery? Your breasts should be...

What is an abdominoplasty? An abdominoplasty (or ‘tummy tuck’) is a cosmetic operation to improve the appearance of your abdomen. It may involve removing excess skin and fat and tightening...

What is a facelift? A facelift is an operation to tighten and lift the soft tissues of your face and neck. Is a facelift suitable for me? As you get older, gravity pulls down on your skin and soft...

What is liposuction? Liposuction is a cosmetic operation to improve the shape of your body by removing fat from under your skin. Is liposuction suitable for me? Your surgeon will carry out a detailed...

What is an otoplasty? An otoplasty is a cosmetic operation to improve the appearance of your ears. Is an otoplasty suitable for me? You are most likely to benefit from an otoplasty if you are self-...

What is an otoplasty? An otoplasty is a cosmetic operation to improve the appearance of your child’s ears. Is an otoplasty suitable for my child? Your child is most likely to benefit from an...

What is a rhinoplasty? A rhinoplasty (or ‘nose job’) is a cosmetic operation to improve the appearance of your nose. It involves operating on the bones and cartilage that give your nose...

Why do I need to have a tooth removed? There are many reasons why you may need to have a tooth removed, such as tooth decay, gum disease and trauma. Are there any alternatives to removing a tooth...

What are wisdom teeth? Wisdom teeth are the teeth at the back of your mouth (the third molar teeth). They tend to come through (erupt) in the late teens or twenties. Some wisdom teeth do not come...

What are adenoids? The adenoids are part of a group of lymphoid tissues (like the glands in the neck or the tonsils) that help to fight off infection from germs that are breathed in or swallowed (see...

What is sinusitis? Your sinuses are air-filled spaces at the front of your skull, between your eyes and above your upper jaw, that are connected to the inside of your nose (see figure 1). Sinusitis is...

What is glue ear? Glue ear is a common condition where fluid collects in your middle ear behind your eardrum (see figure 1). It can cause deafness and repeated earache or infections, resulting in a...

What is glue ear? Glue ear is a common condition where fluid collects in the middle ear behind the eardrum (see figure 1). It can cause deafness and repeated earache or infections, resulting in a...

What is a myringoplasty? A myringoplasty is an operation to repair a hole in your eardrum. A perforation is usually caused by an infection in your middle ear that bursts through your eardrum (see...

What is a deviated nasal septum? The septum is the cartilage and bone inside your nose that divides your nostrils. The septum is usually straight but it can be deviated (bent), causing symptoms of a...

What is a septorhinoplasty? A septorhinoplasty (or ‘nose job’) is an operation to improve the appearance of your nose and to improve how you breathe through your nose. It involves...

What is a cholesteatoma? A cholesteatoma is where a sac of dead skin cells forms in a pocket in your middle ear. The cholesteatoma will slowly get larger and eventually fill your middle ear and...

What is a tonsillectomy? A tonsillectomy is an operation to remove the tonsils, part of a group of lymphoid tissues (like the glands in your neck) that help to fight off infection from germs that are...

What is a tonsillectomy? A tonsillectomy is an operation to remove the tonsils, part of a group of lymphoid tissues (like the glands in your neck) that help to fight off infection from germs that are...

What is a bronchoscopy? A bronchoscopy is a procedure to look for any problems inside the airways (bronchi) using a flexible telescope (see figure 1).  A bronchoscopy is a good way of finding out...

What is a colonoscopy? A colonoscopy is a procedure to look at the inside of your large bowel (colon) using a flexible telescope (see figure 1). A colonoscopy is a good way offinding out if there is a...

What is an ERCP? An ERCP (endoscopic retrograde cholangio-pancreatogram) is a procedure to look for any problems in your bile duct or pancreatic duct using a flexible telescope and dye. Gallstones in...

What is a flexible sigmoidoscopy? A flexible sigmoidoscopy is a procedure to look at the inside of the left, lower part of your colon (large bowel) using a flexible telescope (see figure 1).  A...

What is a PEG? A percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy (PEG) is a procedure to insert a feeding tube through your skin and into your stomach to give you the nutrients and fluid you need (see figure 1...

What is a transbronchial biopsy? A transbronchial biopsy involves removing small pieces of tissue from your lung. A transbronchial biopsy is a good way of finding out if there is a problem in your...

What is an upper GI endoscopy? An upper gastrointestinal (GI) endoscopy is a procedure to look at the inside of your oesophagus (gullet), stomach and duodenum using a flexible telescope (see figure 1...

What is an upper GI endoscopy and dilatation? An upper gastrointestinal (GI) endoscopy is a procedure to look at the inside of your oesophagus (gullet), stomach and duodenum using aflexible telescope...

What is a cataract? A cataract is when the natural lens in your eye becomes cloudy, usually caused by ageing (see figure 1). A cataract causes blurred vision or changes the focus of your eye. What are...

What is the cornea? Your eye has a number of layers. The cornea is the transparent, dome-shaped outer layer at the front of your eye (see figure 1). Sometimes the cornea can become diseased, affecting...

What is strabismus? Strabismus (or 'squint') is where one of the eyes points in towards the nose or out towards the ear. Sometimes one eye may point up or down. How does strabismus happen? Strabismus...

What is entropion and ectropion? Entropion is where your eyelid turns in and causes your eyelashes to rub against the cornea. Ectropion is where your eyelid turns out and does not touch your eye (see...

What is glaucoma? The optic nerve carries images from the retina to your brain, allowing you to see (see figure 1). Glaucoma is the name given to a group of conditions that cause damage to the optic...

What is ptosis surgery? Ptosis surgery is an operation to tighten the muscle that lifts your upper eyelid. Is ptosis surgery suitable for me? As you get older, the levator muscle that lifts your upper...

What is a retinal detachment? The retina is the inner layer at the back of your eye that changes light coming into your eye into images that are sent to your brain. Sometimes the retina can peel off (...

What is Crohn’s disease? Crohn’s disease causes inflammation of your bowel. The disease most often affects the end part of your small bowel (see figure 1). However, it can affect any part...

What is closure of a loop ileostomy? A loop ileostomy is a type of stoma and was made with two ends of your small bowel (see figure 1). It was expected that this would be only temporary and that your...

What are haemorrhoids? Haemorrhoids, also known as piles, are soft fleshy lumps just inside your back passage (anus). Theybleed easily when you have a bowel movement. They do not usually cause pain...

What are haemorrhoids? Haemorrhoids, also known as piles, are soft fleshy lumps just inside your back passage (anus). Theybleed easily when you have had a bowel movement. They do not usually cause...

What is an anal fissure? An anal fissure is a tear in the skin around your back passage (see figure 1). It is a common problem that causes severe pain, especially after a bowel movement. It may also...

What is an anal fistula? An anal fistula is an abnormal connection between the lining on the inside of your anal canal (back passage) and the skin near your anus. Most anal fistulas are caused by an...

What is diverticular disease? Diverticular disease is the name given to a condition where bulges form in the lining of your colon. It becomes more common with age, affecting 5 in 100 people over the...

What is acid reflux? Acid reflux is a condition where acid from your stomach travels up into your oesophagus (gullet). This happens if the valve between your stomach and your oesophagus does not work...

What are common bile-duct stones? Common bile-duct stones are gallstones that get stuck in your common bile-duct (see figure 1). They are common and can run in families. The risk of developing...

What is your spleen? Your spleen is an organ, about the size of your fist. Your spleen’s main functions are to filter old and damaged red blood cells and to produce lymphocytes that fight...

What are gallstones? Gallstones are ‘stones’ that form in your gallbladder (see figure 1). They are common and can run in families. The risk of developing gallstones increases as you get...

What is achalasia? Achalasia is a condition that causes problems with swallowing. It can also cause regurgitation (bringing food back into your mouth), chest pain and weight loss. Achalasia happens...

What is acid reflux? Acid reflux is a condition where acid from your stomach travels up into your oesophagus (gullet). This happens if the valve between your stomach and the oesophagus does not work...

What are gallstones? Gallstones are ‘stones’ that form in your gallbladder (see figure 1). They are common and can run in families. The risk of developing gallstones increases as you get...

What is an abscess? An abscess is a collection of pus surrounded by a wall of tissue. An abscess happens when your body tries to control infection. It causes a painful lump and can make you feel...

What is appendicitis? Appendicitis means inflammation of your appendix (see figure 1). When your appendix is inflamed it causes pain and makes you feel unwell. What are the benefits of surgery...

What is a vasectomy? A vasectomy is a permanent method of male contraception. It involves cutting both the tubes (vas deferens) that carry sperm from your testicles. This prevents sperm from mixing...

What is a circumcision? A circumcision is an operation to remove your foreskin. Circumcisions are usually recommended for medical reasons, such as tightening of the foreskin (phimosis), balanitis...

What is a diagnostic laparoscopy? A diagnostic laparoscopy is an operation using keyhole surgery to look at your abdominal and pelvic organs. For some people minor treatments can be performed at the...

What is an epigastric hernia? An epigastric hernia is where fat pushes out through a weakness in the wall of your abdomen between your umbilicus (belly button) and sternum and forms a lump (see figure...

What is a femoral hernia? Weak spots can develop in the layer of muscle in your abdominal wall, resulting in the contents of your abdomen pushing through. This produces a lump called a hernia (see...

What is a CVC? A CVC is a narrow plastic tube that is inserted in your superior vena cava (one of the large veins that carries blood to your heart). Why do I need a CVC? The three main reasons for...

What is an inguinal hernia? Weak spots can develop in the layer of muscle in your abdominal wall, resulting in the contents of your abdomen pushing through. This produces a lump called a hernia (see...

What is an inguinal hernia? Weak spots can develop in the layer of muscle in your abdominal wall, resulting in the contents of your abdomen pushing through. This produces a lump called a hernia (see...

What is an incisional hernia? Any operation on your abdomen needs a cut that is closed with stitches. Sometimes your wound does not heal properly, resulting in the contents of your abdomen pushing...

What is an inguinal hernia? Weak spots can develop in the layer of muscle in your abdominal wall, resulting in the contents of your abdomen pushing through. This produces a lump called a hernia (see...

What is an inguinal hernia? Weak spots can develop in the layer of muscle in your abdominal wall, resulting in the contents of your abdomen pushing through. This produces a lump called a hernia (see...

What are the parathyroid glands? Most people have four parathyroid glands, which are in your neck and control the balance of calcium in your blood by making parathyroid hormone (PTH). One or more of...

What are paraumbilical and umbilical hernias? There is a natural weakness in the wall of your abdomen at your umbilicus (belly button). This is caused by the way babies develop in the womb. If the...

What are skin lesions? Skin lesions are lumps found on or just below your skin. Examples of skin lesions are epidermoid cysts, lipomata, skin tags and moles. Are there any alternatives to surgery...

What is reversing a vasectomy? A vasectomy is meant to be a permanent method of male contraception. Reversing a vasectomy is a procedure to rejoin the tubes that were cut during a vasectomy (see...

What is the thyroid gland? The thyroid gland is a structure in your neck that produces a hormone called thyroxine, which regulates your body's metabolism. Sometimes this gland can become overactive...

What is a benign scrotal lump? A benign scrotal lump is a lump in your scrotum that is not caused by a cancer. There are two types. A hydrocele, where fluid builds up in the sheath around your...

What is an ingrowing toenail? An ingrowing toenail happens when your toenail grows into the skin around it (see figure 1). The skin can get damaged, causing infection and pain. The problem usually...

What is a pilonidal sinus? A pilonidal sinus is a problem in your natal cleft (area between your buttocks). Hairs can grow in your natal cleft, or loose hairs can fall and collect in your natal cleft...

What is the thyroid gland? The thyroid gland is a structure in your neck that produces a hormone called thyroxine, which regulates your body's metabolism. This gland can become enlarged (thyroid...

What is the thyroid gland? The thyroid gland is a structure in your neck that produces a hormone called thyroxine, which regulates your body's metabolism. This gland can become abnormal and develop a...

What is the thyroid gland? The thyroid gland is a structure in your neck that produces a hormone called thyroxine, which regulates your body's metabolism. Sometimes this gland can become overactive...

What is a pleural biopsy? A pleural biopsy involves removing small pieces of tissue from the two-layered membrane (pleura) that lines the outside of your lung and the inside of your ribcage. Your...

What is aortic valve disease? Your aortic valve controls the flow of blood from your heart (see figure 1). Aortic valve disease is where the valve does not open properly or is narrowed, or does not...

What is a cardiac catheterisation? A cardiac catheterisation, or coronary angiogram, is a test to find out if you have any problems with the coronary arteries (blood vessels that supply your heart...

What is coronary artery disease? Coronary artery disease is a narrowing of the coronary arteries (blood vessels that supply the heart muscle with oxygen). It reduces the blood supply to the heart...

What is a pacemaker? A pacemaker is a device that treats a slow heart rhythm. The pacemaker is the size of a matchbox and contains an electric circuit and battery. The pacemaker is usually inserted...

What is mitral valve disease? Your mitral valve controls the flow of blood into the main pumping chamber (left ventricle) of your heart (see figure 1). Mitral valve disease is where the valve does not...

What is a PCI? A PCI is used to treat the symptoms of coronary artery disease, which is narrowing of the coronary arteries (blood vessels that supply your heart muscle with oxygen). A PCI is a...

What is a thoracoscopy? A thoracoscopy is a procedure to look for any problems in your pleural space (the space between the outside lining of your lungs and the inside lining of your ribcage) (see...

What is a gastric balloon? A gastric balloon is an inflatable silicone balloon that is inserted in your stomach. It works by making you feel full sooner so that you eat less (see figure 1). Is a...

What is gastric banding? Gastric banding involves inserting an adjustable silicone band around the upper part of your stomach. It works by making you feel full sooner so that you eat less (see figure...

What is a gastric bypass? A gastric bypass (also called Roux-en-Y) involves stapling your stomach to create a smaller stomach ‘pouch’ and then bypassing the rest of your stomach and part...

What is a sleeve gastrectomy? A sleeve gastrectomy involves reducing the size of your stomach to a short tube shape (see figure 1). It works by making you feel full sooner so that you eat less. Is a...

What is a sagittal split osteotomy? A sagittal split osteotomy is an operation to change the position of your lower jaw so your teeth can be aligned. There is a limit to how far your orthodontist can...

What is a Le Fort 1 osteotomy? A Le Fort 1 osteotomy is an operation to change the position of your upper jaw so your teeth can be aligned. There is a limit to how far your orthodontist can use...

What are the submandibular glands? The submandibular glands are salivary glands. There are two, one on either side of your neck, under your jawbone (see figure 1). A submandibular gland may need...

What is sciatica? Sciatica is pain down your leg caused by pressure on a nerve where it leaves your spine. This can happen if a disc in your spine becomes worn and develops a bulge (a 'slipped disc...

What is lumbar spinal stenosis? Lumbar spinal stenosis is where the spinal canal narrows in your lower back (see figure 1). A narrowed spinal canal means that there is not enough space for the nerves...

What is a slipped disc? A slipped disc is where the spongy centre of a disc bulges out and puts pressure on a nerve where it leaves your spine (see figure 1). This can cause severe pain, as well as...

What is spinal stenosis? Spinal stenosis is where the space in the centre of your spine (spinal canal) narrows. The spinal canal contains the nerves that leave the lower end of your spinal cord (see...

What is a hysterectomy? A hysterectomy is an operation to remove your uterus (womb). Your cervix is usually also removed. Your ovaries may need to be removed at the same time (see figure 1). The...

What is an amniocentesis? An amniocentesis involves using a needle to remove some of the amniotic fluid that surrounds your baby in your uterus (womb). It is usually performed from 15 weeks of your...

What is an anterior prolapse? An anterior prolapse is a bulge of your vagina caused by your bladder dropping down. It is caused by weakness of the support tissues between your vagina and bladder (see...

What is a Caesarean section? A Caesarean section is a procedure to deliver a baby by a surgical operation. It may be recommended for the following reasons. Your baby is in the breech position Your...

A diagnostic laparoscopy helps to find out the cause of certain gynaecological problems. For some women minor treatments can be performed at the same time...

An ECV is usually a safe and effective way of turning your baby from breech to head first...

An endometrial ablation is a common gynaecological operation. It helps relieve the symptoms of heavy periods. You should get less bleeding and pain...

What is a hysteroscopy? A hysteroscopy is a procedure to look at the inside of your uterus (womb) using a small telescope (hysteroscope). It is common for a biopsy (removing small pieces of the lining...

What is a cervical cerclage? A cervical cerclage is a procedure to place a special stitch in your cervix (neck of your womb) to help keep it closed during your pregnancy (see figure 1). If you are...

Inserting a tension-free vaginal tape should prevent you from passing urine in an uncontrolled way...

What is the anterior cruciate ligament? The anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) is one of the important ligaments that stabilise your knee (see figure 1). If you have torn (ruptured) this ligament, the...

What is arthritis? Arthritis is a group of conditions that cause damage to one or more joints. The most common type of arthritis is osteoarthritis, where there is gradual wear and tear of a joint. For...

What is an ankle fracture? An ankle fracture is a break of one of or both your ankle bones. An ankle fracture is usually caused by a twisting injury to your ankle, resulting from sports or a simple...

What is an arthroscopy of your ankle? An arthroscopy (keyhole surgery) allows your surgeon to see inside your ankle using a camera inserted through small cuts on your skin. Your surgeon can diagnose...

What is an arthroscopy of your elbow? An arthroscopy (keyhole surgery) involves examining the inside your elbow using a telescope inserted through small cuts on your skin. Your surgeon should be able...

What is an arthroscopy of your knee? An arthroscopy (keyhole surgery) allows your surgeon to see inside your knee using a camera inserted through small cuts on your skin. Your surgeon can diagnose...

What is an arthroscopy of your shoulder? An arthroscopy (keyhole surgery) involves examining the inside of your shoulder using a telescope inserted through small cuts on your skin. Your surgeon should...

What is an arthroscopy of your wrist? An arthroscopy (keyhole surgery) involves examining the inside of your wrist joint using a telescope inserted through small cuts on your skin. Your surgeon should...

What is a bunion? A bunion is a bony lump on the side of your foot at the base of your big toe (see figure 1). The most common cause of bunions is footwear that does not have enough width to fit your...

What is Dupuytren’s disease? Dupuytren’s disease is a condition where scar-like tissue forms just beneath the skin of your fingers and the palm of your hand. Over time, this fibrous tissue can...

What is appendicitis? Appendicitis means inflammation of the appendix (see figure 1). When the appendix is inflamed it causes pain and makes you feel unwell. What are the benefits of surgery? Surgery...

What is a circumcision? A circumcision is an operation to remove the foreskin (the skin that covers the sensitive tip of the penis). Worldwide, circumcisions are most commonly performed for religious...

What is a hydrocele? A hydrocele is a swelling around the testicle caused by a collection of fluid. All boys have a connection between their abdomen and scrotum before they are born. By birth, this...

What is an orchidopexy? An orchidopexy is an operation to bring a testicle down into the scrotum. The testicles develop in a baby boy's abdomen when he is in the womb. The testicles usually move down...

What is pyloric stenosis? The pyloric sphincter is the valve that controls the passage of food from the stomach into the intestines (see figure 1). Pyloric stenosis is caused by the valve muscle...

What is an umbilical hernia? An umbilical hernia is caused by a weakness in the layer of muscle of the abdominal wall, just behind the umbilicus (belly button) (see figure 1). All babies have...

What is a barium enema? A barium enema involves placing liquid barium sulphate, which shows up on x-rays, into your large bowel (colon). The liquid lines your large bowel and the x-rays can show if...

What is a chest drain? A chest drain involves inserting a small tube in your pleural space (the space between your lungs and ribcage) to drain air or fluid (see figure 1). A collection of air (...

What is a liver biopsy? A liver biopsy involves removing small pieces of tissue from your liver using a needle. The procedure is performed by a radiologist (doctor who specialises in x-rays and scans...

What is a lung biopsy? A lung biopsy involves removing small pieces of abnormal lung tissue using a needle. The procedure is performed by a radiologist (doctor who specialises in x-rays and scans...

What is a flexible cystoscopy? A flexible cystoscopy is a procedure to check for any problems in your bladder using a flexible telescope (cystoscope). A cystoscopy may be recommended if you are...

What is a flexible cystoscopy? A flexible cystoscopy is a procedure to check for any problems in your bladder using a flexible telescope (cystoscope). A cystoscopy may be recommended if you are...

What is a kidney transplant? A kidney transplant is an operation to transfer a kidney from one person (donor) to another (recipient). If it is suitable, a kidney transplant is the best treatment for...

What is a nephrostomy? Urine normally drains from your kidneys into your bladder through small muscular tubes called ureters. Sometimes one or both of your ureters can become blocked. A nephrostomy is...

What is a rigid cystoscopy? A rigid cystoscopy is a procedure to check for any problems in your bladder using a rigid telescope (cystoscope). Sometimes certain problems with your bladder and urinary...

What is a rigid cystoscopy? A rigid cystoscopy is a procedure to check for any problems in your bladder using a rigid telescope (cystoscope). Sometimes certain problems with your bladder and urinary...

What causes prostate trouble? Prostate trouble is caused by the growth of your prostate gland (see figure 1). It is normal for your prostate gland to get larger with age. If the gland tightens around...

What is a urethrotomy? A urethrotomy is an operation to treat a narrowing of your urethra (tube that carries urine and semen to the tip of your penis). The narrowing is usually caused by scar tissue...

What are varicose veins? Varicose veins are enlarged and twisted veins in the leg. They tend to run in families and are made worse by pregnancy and if you do alot of standing. Veins in your legs...

What is atherosclerosis? Atherosclerosis is a disease affecting the arteries. Abnormal fatty material (called atheroma) coats the inside of an artery, causing it to narrow or ‘harden’ (see...

What are varicose veins? Varicose veins are enlarged and twisted veins in your leg. They tend to run in families and are made worse by pregnancy and if you doa lot of standing. Veins in your legs...